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NeuroScience

NEUROSCIENCES – PHYSIOLOGY

Compiled Topical Questions of Neuroscience – Physiology

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  • Deep tendon reflexes involve the stretching of a muscle tendon, which activates the muscle spindle and results in a rapid, involuntary muscle contraction. Superficial reflexes, on the other hand, involve stimulation of the skin or mucous membranes.

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Which of the following is not a deep tendon reflex?

The pneumotaxic center fine-tunes respiration by controlling inspiratory duration

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Where is the pneumotaxic center located?

  • The sympathetic nervous system is associated with the “fight or flight” response, which includes actions like increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and redirecting blood flow to muscles. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system is associated with the “rest and digest” response, which includes actions like slowing the heart rate, constricting pupils, and promoting digestion.

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Which one of the following is a function of the sympathetic nervous system?

“This structure is found within the ventricles and acts as a specialized filtration system, producing the fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. What is it?”

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Which of the following structures is responsible for the production of cerebrospinal fluid?

Post-ganglionic fibers are typically unmyelinated, making them slower than preganglionic fibers.

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Which of the following nerve fiber types carries post-ganglionic autonomic signals to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands?

Think about the part of the brainstem that regulates consciousness and sleep-wake cycles. Which structure is responsible for maintaining wakefulness and alertness?

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A patient is suffering from wakefulness and narcolepsy. Which one of the following is affected?

It is necessary to generate both diffusion potentials and action potentials.

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What is the difference in ionic concentration across a membrane called?

Think of the hypothalamic nucleus that, when stimulated, drives a person to eat and drink.

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Which nucleus of the hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of thirst and hunger?

This state is characterized by high levels of focus or thinking, often seen when someone is working on complex problems or making decisions.

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In which of the following states do beta waves occur?

“Why do we naturally feel sleepy when it’s dark and wake up with daylight?”

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The suprachiasmatic nucleus is responsible for which of the following functions?

Think about reflexes that involve both sides of the body and help maintain balance when a sudden withdrawal occurs.

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A 20-year-old male was walking barefoot when he suddenly withdrew his leg when he accidentally stepped on a nail. Which of the following reflexes is responsible for activating the antagonistic contralateral extensor muscles in this case?

This ion is the primary driver of depolarization when a nicotinic receptor is activated.

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Acetylcholine increases the permeability of which of the following ions when it binds to nicotinic receptors at the postsynaptic neuron?

Consider the receptor that requires both presynaptic glutamate release and postsynaptic depolarization to activate, playing a central role in calcium-dependent synaptic changes.

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Which neurotransmitter receptor subtype is primarily responsible for mediating the long-term potentiation (LTP) observed in synaptic plasticity?

These channels are always open, allowing a constant flow of ions, which keeps the inside of the neuron more negative.

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Which of the following is responsible for the negative resting membrane potential of -70 millivolts of neurons?

“The name of the key component sounds like it comes from a lipid family and contains a molecule essential for neuron insulation.”

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What is the main chemical constituent of the insulating sheaths on myelinated neurons?

This sleep stage is known for its characteristic eye movements and is where most vivid dreams occur. It also features a unique brain wave pattern that resembles the activity seen when you are awake.

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REM sleep is characterized by which of the following?

Focus on the pathway that provides the brain with positional awareness and fine touch sensation, which is tested during the Romberg test.

 

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A positive Romberg sign is indicative of damage to which of the following spinal column tracts?

Focus on the motor protein responsible for retrograde transport, which allows viruses to move from the periphery to the cell body of neurons.

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A 2-year-old boy was infected by poliovirus and suffered flaccid paralysis. By using which one of the following proteins did the virus enter the cell bodies of the neurons in the central nervous system?

Focus on the nature of the reflexes. Superficial reflexes involve stimulation of the skin or mucous membranes, while deep tendon reflexes involve muscle stretch.

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Which of the following is not a superficial reflex?

Sweat glands are a unique exception in the sympathetic system

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The sweat glands and piloerector muscles of hairy skin are innervated by which of the following fiber types?

“This thalamic nucleus serves as a bridge between movement planning centers like the basal ganglia and cerebellum and the part of the brain responsible for executing voluntary actions. Which function does this best describe?”

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The ventral lateral nucleus of the thalamus is concerned with which of the following functions?

Think about the location and function of the Raphe nuclei in the brainstem and their role in regulating mood and sleep. Consider which neurotransmitter is most commonly associated with these nuclei and how it influences the transition from wakefulness to sleep

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Which neurotransmitter is secreted by the Raphe nuclei that also plays a role in non-REM sleep?

“Think about the brain structure that processes fear and other strong emotions. Which structure helps you remember emotionally charged events?”

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Which of the following brain structures is responsible for emotional memory?

Focus on the sensory modality processed by structures in the brainstem and midbrain

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The lateral lemniscus is part of a pathway carrying which of the following sensations?

“Oxygen and carbon dioxide need to reach the brain without restriction, but large proteins and charged molecules are blocked. What kind of substances can pass the BBB?”

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Which of the following statements regarding the blood-brain barrier is true?

“Which sensory afferent fiber detects the rate of muscle stretch and is responsible for the stretch reflex?”

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The nuclear bag fibers of muscle spindles are innervated by which of the following sensory afferent fibers?

This pathway originates from the motor cortex, controls skilled voluntary movements, and crosses at the medullary pyramids.

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What is the role of the corticospinal tract?

“How does the nervous system ensure that muscles contract in a coordinated way, with specific groups of fibers responding to a single command?”

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What is a motor neuron, along with the skeletal muscle fibers innervated by that particular neuron, collectively called?

Try to remember that K complexes and sleep spindles are unique markers of a certain stage of  sleep and play a role in transitioning from light to deeper stages of sleep.

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A 55-year-old male presented to the neurology clinic with the complaint of excessive daytime sleepiness. He was advised to undergo a sleep study. Just after midnight, the lab technician notices the EEG wave showing K complexes and sleep spindles. Which of the following stages of sleep is the patient in at that moment?

Focus on the nerve originating in the medulla oblongata that affects the muscles used in swallowing and voice modulation.

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A 55-year-old woman presents with difficulty swallowing and hoarseness of voice. She also complains of choking while drinking fluids. MRI reveals a tumor involving the medulla oblongata. Which of the following cranial nerves is most likely affected?

This hypothalamic nucleus detects blood osmolarity and regulates ADH secretion to control water balance.

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Which of the following hypothalamic nucleus acts as an osmoreceptor?

“Which sensory pathway is responsible for transmitting crude touch rather than pain or fine touch?”

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A child is having a tickling sensation. Which tract would be involved?

Focus on the receptor type specialized for detecting high-frequency vibrations in non-hairy skin, particularly under conditions of mechanical exposure.

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A 42-year-old jackhammer operator presents in the neurology clinic with decreased sensitivity to high-frequency vibrations in the non-hairy skin of his hands. Which of the following receptors is most likely affected in this case?

“Think beyond just a single nerve or muscle fiber—this term describes their collective function in movement.”

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What is the combination of a motor nerve and all the muscle fibers it innervates called?

“These brain waves are most prominent when you’re awake but relaxed, often with your eyes closed, before transitioning into sleep.”

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What is the frequency range of alpha waves?

Think about which nerve/s play a role in pupillary reflex, and then what’s the location of the nuclei to which those nerve/s are linked to.

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A 32-year-old male presents to the emergency department with head trauma after he fell from a ladder. A physician shines a flashlight into the patient’s eyes and observes that the pupillary reflexes are normal. This reflex is used to test the functioning of which of the following structures of the brain?

Think about how the brain deals with repetitive, neutral stimuli that don’t offer new information or consequences.

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What occurs to the cerebral cortical response when a sensory stimulus neither elicits reward nor punishment?

Think about what happens to your body when you’re deeply asleep. What’s slowing down? What’s at its lowest point?

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Slow-wave sleep is concerned with which of the following?

Think about the glial cells specific to the peripheral nervous system that actively support axonal regeneration and remyelination.

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A 40-year-old woman sustained a peripheral nerve injury while cutting vegetables. The distance between the cut ends was less than 3 mm. Which of the following cells is responsible for the regeneration of this nerve?

Think about the part of the brain that controls basic, involuntary life-sustaining functions like heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing. Which region is most primitive and essential for survival?

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Which of the following contains respiratory center in the brain?

“This reflex changes as the nervous system matures, showing a different response in infants compared to adults.”

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Which of the following is a reflex that develops over time?

Think of REM sleep’s role—without it, cognitive function declines.

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Prolonged rapid eye movement (REM) sleep deprivation can result in which of the following?

Think about the cranial nerve that controls shoulder elevation and head turning through the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.

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A 72-year-old female visits a physician with complaints of difficulty in raising her shoulders and turning her head for the last few weeks. Investigations reveal a lesion in the Medulla. Which one of the following nerves is involved in this lesion to have the effects mentioned above?

Think about the neurons that specifically innervate the intrafusal fibers of muscle spindles. Which type of motor neuron adjusts the sensitivity of muscle spindles to stretch?

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Which of the following is responsible for dynamic and static control of muscle spindles?

Focus on the indirect pathway, which involves the subthalamus increasing activity in the output nuclei of the basal ganglia to inhibit unwanted movements.

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Which of the following nuclei of the basal ganglia receives input from the sub-thalamus via the indirect pathway?

Consider which brain wave pattern is dominant when someone is actively thinking and engaging in a task.

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Which of the following waves are seen when a person is awake and is alert?

Focus on the process that results in lasting synaptic changes

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Which of the following mechanisms is involved in the conversion of short-term memory to long-term memory?

Think about how the brain filters out background noise or repetitive stimuli to focus on important information

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Which one of the following is the capability of the brain to ignore unimportant information?

Think about the midbrain’s role in modulating pain signals through descending pathways rather than other autonomic or motor functions.

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Damage to  periaqeductal gray area of midbrain results in loss of which one of the following functions?

“Which ion primarily enters the cell upon nicotinic receptor activation, leading to depolarization?”

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The binding of acetylcholine to its nicotinic receptor increases the permeability of the cell membrane to which one of the following?

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Stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus causes an animal to develop which of the following?

Think about which ion is most responsible for depolarizing the postsynaptic neuron in neuromuscular junctions and autonomic ganglia.

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Acetylcholine increases the permeability of which of the following ions when it binds to nicotinic receptors at the postsynaptic neuron?

Think about the role of small amino acids in the CNS and their effects on neuronal activity. Which amino acid is known for its inhibitory function, particularly in the brainstem and spinal cord?

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What is glycine in the brainstem characterized as?

Think about the pathway responsible for transmitting crude, non-discriminative touch, rather than fine or localized sensations.

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Which of the following sensations is carried by the anterior spinothalamic tract?

“Which brain region acts as the body’s master clock, regulating sleep-wake cycles?”

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Serotonergic innervations of suprachiasmatic nuclei of the hypothalamus involve which of the following?

Think about the brain region involved in decision-making, attention, and short-term cognitive tasks

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Maintaining working memory contents for a dozen seconds requires which of the following?

Focus on the initial response of sensory receptors to a stimulus. Think about what happens at the molecular level when a stimulus is detected by a receptor.

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The nerve endings at the end of the receptor have a receptor potential due to which of the following?

Think about the neurotransmitter that plays a key role in promoting sleep and relaxation. Which brain nuclei are the major source of this neurotransmitter?

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Which area of the brain is primarily associated with the production of natural sleep, and its stimulation results in sleep-like characteristics?

This pathway transmits poorly localized touch.. separate from pain and temperature transmission.

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Which of the following tracts carries the sensation of crude touch?

Consider the hypothalamic nucleus responsible for suppressing hunger and promoting feelings of fullness.
Satiety :- the quality or state of being fed or gratified to or beyond capacity

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A person with damage to a specific region of the hypothalamus experiences a complete lack of satiety during meals, leading to uncontrollable overeating and eventual obesity. Which nuclei within the hypothalamus are most likely to be affected in this individual?

Imagine suddenly falling asleep in the middle of a conversation or collapsing when laughing—which disorder fits this?

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Which of the following disorders is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden loss of muscle tone?

This structure is located in the midbrain and is crucial for coordinating eye-related reflexes.

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The consensual light reflex that leads to the constriction of the pupil of the eye with reference to light falling on the opposite eye is mediated via which of the following pathways?

“Which hypothalamic neuropeptide is deficient in narcolepsy?”

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Hypothalamus releases which of the following substances to induce wakefulness?

Your skin detects the cold wind as soon as you step outside. What type of receptor is responsible for this immediate sensation?”

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Which receptors receive stimuli immediate from external surroundings?

Think about the term that describes the lack of coordination between different components of a movement, resulting in fragmented or jerky motor activity.

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Which of the following cerebellar disorders results in an inability to combine the various components of a movement to create a smooth action?

These waves dominate when you’re focused, problem-solving, or actively engaged in thinking.

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Which of the following waves are seen when a person is awake and is alert?

Consider which type of intrafusal fiber is responsible for detecting rapid stretch, rather than sustained stretch.

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Which of the following is responsible for the dynamic control of muscle spindles?

This cranial nerve is responsible for moving the eye and also controls pupil size and lens focusing—which one is it?

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The craniosacral outflow constitutes the parasympathetic nervous system. The parasympathetic fibers of which of the following nerves control the pupillary and accommodation reflexes?

“Which neural pathway connects the thalamus and cortex, playing a key role in EEG rhythm generation?”

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Absence of alpha waves indicates damage to which tract?

Focus on the neurotransmitter associated with descending pain inhibition originating from the brainstem.

 

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Which one of the following neurotransmitters has been suggested as a mediator of analgesia produced by stimulation of the raphe spinal pathway?

Which reflex can you consciously override more easily? eitherway.. the options present aren’t exactly black and white.

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Which of the following is a voluntary reflex?

“This function  helps to protect  and stimulate vital organs during stress, ensuring survival in a fight-or-flight situation.”

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Which one of the following is a function of the sympathetic nervous system?

“What is the total volume of cerebrospinal fluid, given that it is replaced around 3–4 times per day?”

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What is the total volume of cerebrospinal fluid present in the central nervous system?

The refractory period occurs immediately after a nerve impulse or action potential, when it’s difficult or impossible to generate another impulse.

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The refractory period after an action potential is due to what?

Think about how nerve impulse transmission is stopped..

so think about this.. What prevents action potential propagation.

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During suturing of a wound, a patient receives local anesthesia around the wound area. After this, he did not feel any needle pain during suturing. Which of the following option could be the reason for this?

This brainstem structure is crucial for controlling your alertness and sleep cycles. When it’s not functioning properly, it can lead to conditions that cause unpredictable episodes of sleep, even when you’re supposed to be awake.

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A patient is suffering from wakefulness and narcolepsy. Which one of the following is affected?

This frontal lobe structure is responsible for planning and initiating movements, including preparing the body for postural stability before voluntary motion occurs.

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Which one of the following is involved in the anticipation of postural equilibrium?

a synaptic messenger with specific receptors and pharmacological modulation (agonists/antagonists).

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A compound that is synthesized in a neuron, has a receptor in vicinity, and has agonists and antagonists defines which of the following terms?

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The myelin sheath of the neurons is altered due to the formation of plaques in which of the following disorders of the nervous system?

“Think about a structured tool that is widely used in emergency settings to determine whether a patient is alert, drowsy, or in a coma. It assigns numerical scores based on specific responses.”

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How is the level of consciousness of a patient tested?

Which neurotransmitter is released in a fight-or-flight response and affects both vasoconstriction and heart rate?

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Which of the following neurotransmitters equally excites both alpha and beta-adrenergic receptors?

“Which autoimmune disorder causes muscle weakness that worsens with repeated use?”

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Which of the following is an autoimmune disease affecting the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors?

CSF is absorbed into the venous system through tiny projections of the arachnoid membrane into the superior sagittal sinus.

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Where does absorption of cerebrospinal fluid occur?

Think about the receptor type found at all autonomic ganglia, whether sympathetic or parasympathetic

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Which type of cholinergic receptor is found at synapses between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic system?

Focus on the receptor that is protecting it from overexertion.

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During voluntary movements, the Golgi tendon organs are involved in providing which of the following information to the central nervous system?

“This hypothalamic nucleus is essential for the fight-or-flight response, working closely with the sympathetic nervous system. Think about which system needs to be activated when you are faced with danger or stress.”

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Which of the following hypothalamic nucleus is responsible for increasing the heart rate and blood pressure?

Think about the structure responsible for fear responses and emotional regulation, which, when damaged, results in loss of fear and hyperorality.

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In an animal laboratory, the change in the behavior of a monkey is observed. The monkey has a loss of fear, forgetfulness, and the tendency to place everything in its mouth. Ablation (medical procedure that destroys or removes tissues, cells, or functions in the body) of which of the following structures of the limbic system is the most likely cause for these behavioral changes?

LMN lesions cause flaccid paralysis, atrophy, and fasciculations, while UMN lesions cause spastic paralysis and hyperreflexia.

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In lower motor neuron lesions, patient develops which of the following conditions?

These fibers are part of the sensory pathway, bringing information about the external environment and internal body conditions to your brain.

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Which one of the fibers are used by sensory receptors to carry impulse from the periphery to the central nervous system?

Focus on the sensory pathway responsible for transmitting pain and temperature information to the brain.

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A 35-year-old woman sustains a traumatic injury to the T8 level of her spinal cord. She presents with loss of pain and temperature sensation below the level of the injury but preserved touch and proprioceptive sensations. Which of the following pathways is most likely affected?

Have you ever felt your foot “fall asleep” and then experience a tingling, buzzing, or prickling feeling as it “wakes up”? That’s paresthesia!

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What is meant by paresthesia?

“Which spinal tract is primarily responsible for transmitting pain and temperature sensations?”

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Mr. Arshad, a 45-year-old diabetic man, is referred to the surgical unit for the dressing of a wound on the sole of his left foot. He says that when he took his shoes off at night there was a small stone inside the shoe which had wounded the foot, making it bleed. However, surprisingly, he did not feel pain at all. Conscious perception of this sensation is most likely carried by which one of the following tracts?

Think about the cerebellum’s role in initiating movements with proper timing and coordination, and what happens when that role is disrupted.

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What is the consequence of the absence of cerebellar support in the motor system during movement initiation?

Think about the hypothalamic nuclei and their specific roles in maintaining homeostasis. Which nucleus is known for promoting feeding behavior and responding to thirst signals?

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Which nucleus of the hypothalamus is involved in the regulation of thirst and hunger?

When the brain loses control over voluntary movement, muscles remain tense due to uninhibited spinal reflexes. Over time, they weaken but do not shrink rapidly. What kind of atrophy does this cause?”

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Which of the following characterizes upper motor neuron lesions?

“Think about which part of the hypothalamus is responsible for parasympathetic activation—slowing the heart and promoting digestion and urination. It’s also involved in cooling down the body when overheated.”

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Which hypothalamic nuclei are responsible for decreasing heart rate and blood pressure, and increasing the contraction of the urinary bladder?

This hypothalamic nucleus is involved in heat dissipation (cooling) and parasympathetic activation, not the sympathetic system.

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Which of the following is not true about the hypothalamus?

It is critical for autonomic control, including breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure regulation.

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Cardiac and vasomotor centers are located in which of the following structures of the central nervous system?

Think about cranial nerves involved in autonomic control of glands, the pupil, and thoracoabdominal viscera.

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Which of the following cranial nerves are a part of the parasympathetic nervous system?

Think about the part of the brainstem that maintains consciousness and alertness. Which system is responsible for keeping you awake and attentive?

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Which one of the following is the function of ascending reticular system?

The sympathetic system prepares the body for “fight or flight”

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Which of the following functions is the result of an increased activity of the sympathetic nervous system?

“Why does one leg flex while the other extends? Think about how your body prevents falling after stepping on something sharp.”

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A 29-year-old man steps on a broken bottle with the base of his right foot. His right leg immediately flexes and his left leg extends. What is this reflex called?

“If one leg pulls away from danger, how does the body prevent falling over?”

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A person stepped on a piece of glass and flexed his right leg to avoid it while his left leg extended. What is this called?

Think about the role of the inner ear and how it communicates with the brain to maintain balance. Which brainstem nuclei are responsible for processing this information and coordinating the body’s response?

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What is the function of the vestibular nucleus present in the brainstem?

“Which hormone helps regulate your sleep cycle based on light exposure?”

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What hormone is synthesized by the pineal gland?

Consider what needs to happen to stop a movement. How do muscles work in pairs to control movement?

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What is the typical function of the cerebellum in motor movement initiation and termination?

🧠 Think about when the nervous system develops and matures. The process of myelination is closely tied to the timing of nervous system development, starting before birth and continuing after birth. Focus on the timeline of when myelination occurs and how it progresses

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Regarding myelin sheath around axons, what is correct?

Focus on factors directly affecting how fast a signal travels along the fiber, not how far it has to travel.

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The speed of a nerve impulse is independent of which of the following factors?

Think about the motor neurons that specifically control the sensitivity of muscle spindles. Which type of motor neuron innervates intrafusal muscle fibers?

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Which one of the following innervates intrafusal muscle fibers?

Think about the neurotransmitter from the Raphe nuclei that regulates mood and sleep and is involved in promoting NREM sleep.

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Which of the following neurotransmitters is released by the Raphe neurons nerve endings is associated with the induction of sleep?

Focus on the pathway that transmits dull, aching pain over a prolonged duration and contributes to the emotional aspect of pain.

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Which of the following pain pathways are associated with poorly localized pain sensation?

Think about the parts of the brain involved in planning and coordinating movements rather than directly executing them. Which cortical area is associated with these functions and contributes to the extrapyramidal system?

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The extrapyramidal motor system includes the pathway stemming from which of the following points of origin?

Focus on the linear acceleration of the utricle and saccule, which are unique to the otolith organs.

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A 60-year-old male patient is suspected to be suffering from impairment of the otolith organs based on a detailed neurological examination and a CT scan. Which of the following functions is most likely to be disturbed in this case?

“Which neurotransmitter is widely involved in mood, sleep, pain modulation, and autonomic control?”

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Which of the following chemical neurotransmitters are present in neurons that have cell bodies in the brainstem projecting to the hypothalamus, limbic system, neocortex, cerebellum, and spinal cord?

Think about how neurons communicate intensity to the brain

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Brain can distinguish between the strengths of light touch and sustained pressure during sensory encoding. Which of the following properties is responsible for this action of the brain?

This neurotransmitter is the same one used by pre-ganglionic neurons in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system to stimulate post-ganglionic neurons.

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Which neurotransmitter is most commonly released by pre-ganglionic sympathetic neurons?

These fibers are responsible for sensing muscle tension and help prevent muscle injury from overexertion. What type of sensory afferent would handle this task?

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Which of the following types of nerve fibers innervate Golgi tendon organs?

Focus on the glial cell type known for its supportive and homeostatic functions in the CNS, especially its role in maintaining ionic balance during neuronal activity.

 

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Which of the following specialized glial cells are responsible for the maintenance of extracellular potassium homeostasis in the central nervous system?

This sensory pathway is bilateral and involves the superior olivary nucleus and medial geniculate body

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A pathway that consists of the superior olivary nucleus and the trapezoid body connecting to the inferior colliculus and the medial geniculate body is responsible for detecting which sense?

Focus on the physical properties of nerve fibers, such as their size and how fast they transmit signals, which differentiate A, B, and C types.

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On which of the following basis are nerve fiber types A, B, and C primarily classified?

Focus on the inhibitory neurotransmitter reduced by the direct pathway, which disinhibits the thalamus and enhances motor activity.

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Which of the following primary neurotransmitters is decreased by the direct pathway of the basal ganglia, resulting in increased motor activity?

This condition is most famously associated with patient H.M., who underwent bilateral hippocampal removal to treat epilepsy, resulting in profound difficulty forming new declarative memories.

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Which term describes the phenomenon observed in individuals who have undergone bilateral surgical removal of portions of the hippocampi, rendering them unable to form new memories?

This term describes enhanced pain perception, often seen in conditions like neuropathy, burns, or inflammation.

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What does the term hyperalgesia mean?

Think about the sensory pathways in the spinal cord. Which pathway is specifically responsible for transmitting pain and temperature sensations?

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Pulsatile pain is transmitted through which of the following pathways?

“Imagine stepping on a sharp object or touching a hot stove—your body reacts instantly to protect you. What kind of receptor is responsible for this?”

 

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Which of the following sensations is detected by nociceptors?

These conditions are commonly seen after nerve injuries.

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Hyperalgesia and allodynia signify which of the following statements?

Focus on the role of GI in reducing intracellular signaling

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Which of the following functions is performed by GI protein-coupled metabotropic receptors?

“Peripheral nerves can regenerate, but the process depends on factors like injury type and Schwann cell support. The rate is measured in millimeters per day, not in large numbers.”

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What is the rate of nerve regeneration after an injury?

Think of the inhibitory neurotransmitter central to the basal ganglia pathways that is primarily responsible for motor control and is reduced in hyperkinetic disorders

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In Huntington’s disease, which of the following neurotransmitters is primarily decreased due to the degeneration of the striatum?

Focus on the smallest and unmyelinated fibers, as they are blocked first by local anesthetics, which target pain sensation.

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Before a minor surgical procedure, a local anesthetic is injected by the surgeon to ensure that the patient feels no pain. Which of the following nerve fibers is most likely to be blocked by the local anesthetic?

Which motor neuron type actually makes muscles contract?

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Which of the following types of neurons innervate extrafusal muscle fibers?

Focus on the condition where pain arises from nerve dysfunction rather than tissue damage, often manifesting as allodynia.

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A 40-year-old male was diagnosed to have increased sensitivity to pain, without major tissue damage. He complained that even touching cloth is painful for him 🙁 . Which one of the following types of pain is my guy suffering from?

The simplest reflex arcs, like the knee-jerk reflex, involve how many  synapses between the sensory and motor neurons?

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A patient with an upper motor neuron lesion shows hyperreflexia when a knee-jerk reflex is performed. Which of the following types of reflex arc is involved in this reflex action?

Which spinal cord interneuron uses glycine to regulate motor neuron activity and is affected by tetanus toxin?”

 

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Which one of the following is an inhibitory cell in the spinal cord?

“This specialized structure within the ventricles acts like a filtration unit, drawing fluid from blood to create the clear liquid that protects and nourishes your brain.”

 

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Which of the following secretes cerebrospinal fluid?

This structure acts as the “decision-making center” of the neuron, determining whether the signal is strong enough to fire an action potential.

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At which of the following structures do the nerve impulses converge to create an action potential?

These specialized neurons in the hypothalamus detect increased solute concentration

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In increased thirst, the brain responds to the increased osmolality of the extracellular fluid by activating which of the following?

Think about the cellular and biochemical composition of CSF under normal conditions. CSF is largely acellular, and the presence of immune cells like lymphocytes is abnormal.

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Which of the following is not a normal constituent of cerebrospinal fluid?

Focus on the motor protein responsible for retrograde transport, moving material toward the cell body along microtubules.

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A 2-year-old boy was infected by polio virus and developed flaccid paralysis. This virus enters the central nervous system from periphery and reaches the soma by retrograde transport. Which of the following proteins is used by the polio virus to reach the cell body?

Think about the sleep stage where the body is in its deepest, most unresponsive state. Why do some children not wake up even when they need to use the restroom?

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Non-REM sleep is most commonly associated with which of the following?

“Your eyes are the only muscles that stay active while the rest of your body is temporarily paralyzed—what state could this be?”

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REM sleep is characterized by which of the following?

Think about the sensory receptors that monitor muscle activity. Which type of receptor is specifically responsible for detecting tension in tendons and preventing over-contraction of muscles?

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Which of the following correctly describes the Golgi tendon organs?

Think of a spinal cord interneuron that regulates motor neuron activity by inhibition, preventing excessive contraction.

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What is the function of Renshaw cells?

Think about fluent aphasia —speech is fluent but nonsensical, and comprehension is impaired.

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A patient presents with the inability to interpret thoughts, although he is capable of expressing individual words or even short phrases. Which area of the brain is most likely to be affected?

Think about deep sleep disorders that all occur during Stage 3 SWS.

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Which of the following is mostly associated with slow-wave sleep?

These fibers act as first responders to sudden changes in muscle length, ensuring that your muscles react quickly to unexpected stretches.

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Which of the following accurately describes the function of the nuclear bag fibers?

Focus on the metabolic needs of nerve fibers.

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Type B nerve fibers are most sensitive to which one of the following stimuli?

Focus on the part of the cerebellum that communicates with the cerebral cortex and is involved in higher-order motor planning, especially for skilled and complex movements.

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Which of the following parts of the cerebellum is involved in the planning of sequential movements?

Think about how long nerve injuries take to heal—regeneration isn’t instant my dear… Even Deadpool and Wolverine take time…

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At what rate does peripheral nerve fiber regenerate?

IPSP occurs when the inside of the neuron becomes more negative, making it harder to reach the threshold for firing an action potential. This often happens when an ion moves into the cell, increasing its negativity.

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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential is caused by which of the following?

At what temperature will you consider yourself.. hot.
or well if this is phrased more professionally
At what temperature does it start feeling painfully hot?

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Thermal nociceptors are activated by skin temperature above what value?

“This pathway is essential for precise sensations that require fine discrimination. Consider what type of sensory test would be most affected in diseases like vitamin B12 deficiency or tabes dorsalis.”

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The dorsal column pathway is best tested by checking which of the following sensations?

Your brain doesn’t just sit dry inside your skull. It floats in a liquid that replenishes about 3-4 times daily—what’s the daily turnover?”

 

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What is the rate of formation of cerebrospinal fluid?

“Which ion makes the inside of a neuron more negative when it enters?”

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Which of the following elicits inhibitory post synaptic potential?

This frequency is seen when a person is actively thinking or concentrating, and these waves are commonly detected during mental tasks or high alertness.

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What is the frequency range of beta waves?

Think of the neurotransmitter most often targeted by antidepressant medications to treat mood disorders.

 

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Which of the following neurotransmitters is primarily responsible for the regulation of mood and emotional behavior in the central nervous system?

“Which reflex does not involve a tendon being tapped to produce a muscle contraction?”

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Which of the following is not a deep tendon reflex?

Focus on the hormone secreted during fasting that stimulates hunger and overrides satiety signals.

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Which of the following hormones/factors is responsible for inhibiting the action of leptin on the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus and stimulating the lateral hypothalamic nucleus producing a sense of hunger?

Think about the protective and regulatory roles of the blood-brain barrier. Which function ensures that the brain receives essential nutrients while being shielded from harmful substances?

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Which of the following is the main function of blood-brain barrier?

This nervous system is responsible for the “fight or flight” response and has a chain of ganglia running along the spine.

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Which part of the nervous system consists of two ganglionated nerve trunks extending the entire length of the vertebral column on both sides?

“When you’re learning to play the piano, your brain constantly adjusts finger pressure and position based on how the keys feel. Which function of the motor cortex does this demonstrate?”

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Sensory feedback helps the motor cortex to control which of the following?

This process prevents neurons from firing, making the body unable to perceive pain.

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Anesthesia was given to the patient in order not to feel the pain during surgery. How does the anesthesia work?

Think about the inhibitory interneurons that regulate motor neuron activity and prevent overexcitation through feedback loops.

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Which of the following types of inhibition is mediated by inhibitory interneurons in the spinal cord and tends to produce the effect of lateral inhibition?

“Before reaching the target organ, the sympathetic neuron first communicates with another neuron in a ganglion. What is the common neurotransmitter at this junction?”

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Which neurotransmitter is most commonly released by pre-ganglionic sympathetic neurons?

you’re nervous or in a dark environment.. what happens to your eyes.

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Surgery was planned for a 14-year-old student for his atrial septal defect. On the day of his surgery, he was very anxious. The doctor examined his eyes with an ophthalmoscope and subsequently gave him anxiolytics for his nervousness. Contraction of which of the following eye muscles is the result of the sympathetic effect of anxiety?

Think about the specific area in the hypothalamus that monitors the body’s fluid balance and triggers the sensation of thirst when the body is dehydrated.

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A hiker finds herself lost in a desert, with a limited water supply and rising temperatures. She begins to experience intense thirst, driving her to search desperately for water sources. Which specific area within the hypothalamus is likely responsible for creating this sensation of thirst in her brain?

Focus on the brain area responsible for speech production rather than comprehension, particularly in the dominant hemisphere.

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A day after a head injury, a neurologist observed that his 45-year-old patient understood spoken and written words but his speech was slow, poorly articulated with a great effort. Which of the following cerebral areas may be affected in this patient?

Think about the brain structures that are involved in emotions, memory processing, and behavioral reactions. The hippocampus plays a key role in memory and connects to regions related to emotions and autonomic functions.

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The hippocampus serves as an additional channel for incoming sensory signals to initiate behavioral reactions, collaborating with the limbic system through various pathways. Which limbic structures are primarily connected to the hippocampus?

Focus on the slow, writhing movements of the hands and face. Damage to the globus pallidus is specifically associated with this type of involuntary movement.

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A 45-year-old male presented to a neurology clinic with complaints of spontaneous and continuous writhing movement of hands, an arm, and face. MRI scans reveal a lesion of the globus pallidus. The patient is manifesting which of the following signs in this case?

Consider the type of pain associated with abnormal nerve processing and sensitivity to non-painful stimuli.

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A 45-year-old male was diagnosed to have increased sensitivity to pain without major tissue damage. He complained that even the touch of cloth is painful to him. Which one of the following types of pain is he suffering from?

Think about the role of lower motor neurons in muscle innervation and reflex arcs. What happens to muscle tone and reflex activity when these neurons are damaged?

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In lower motor neuron lesions, patient develops which of the following conditions?

This nucleus plays a key role in water balance by producing a hormone that affects urine output.

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Lesion of the supraoptic nucleus results in which of the following?

“If you try walking with your eyes closed, your body still maintains balance, adjusting movements automatically. This structure fine-tunes coordination and helps you stand upright without consciously thinking about it.”

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Which of the following is responsible for normal maintenance of tone and equilibrium?

“Think about which hypothalamic nucleus is responsible for nurturing behaviors like bonding and lactation. This nucleus is also involved in stress responses but plays a critical role in releasing a hormone that promotes maternal functions.”

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Suckling causes the release of oxytocin from which of the hypothalamus nuclei?

The basal ganglia structure that receives cortical excitatory inputs is responsible for initiating and modulating its activity.

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Which of the following structures is considered the input nucleus of the basal ganglia?

:

🧠 “Which receptor is deeply located and specialized for detecting vibration and deep pressure?”

 

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Which of the following receptors detects pressure?

  • Superficial reflexes → Stimulated by skin/mucosa, involve multiple synapses, and are influenced by UMNs.
  • Deep tendon reflexes → Stimulated by muscle stretch, involve one synapse (monosynaptic), and are independent of cortical influence.

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Which of the following is not a superficial reflex?

“Which neurotransmitter makes a neuron more negative (hyperpolarized) and less likely to fire?”

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Which one of the following, upon release from the nerve terminal, causes the opening of anionic channels in the postsynaptic neuron?

This type of receptor is specifically involved in detecting stimuli that could cause injury or harm, leading to the sensation we associate with distress.

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Which of the following sensations is detected by nociceptors?

This part of the neuron is the metabolic center, where neurotransmitter synthesis and cellular maintenance occur.

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Which part of the neuron has the Nissl substance?

Think about the part of the brain that acts as a “fine-tuner” for motor movements, ensuring they are smooth and precise. Which structure is known for this function?

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Damping of the motor movements is done by which of the following?

“This glial cell type in the CNS provides structural support, regulates neurotransmitters, and plays a crucial role in maintaining the blood-brain barrier. What is it?”

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Which one of the following forms the blood-brain barrier?

Focus on the body vs. face distinction for sensory input.

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A 65-year-old male patient suffers from a cerebrovascular accident resulting in a complete loss of sensation on the right side of the body sparing the head and face. Which of the following nuclei of the thalamus is most likely to be affected by this lesion?

Remember that CSF is continuously produced and turned over multiple times in a day, and its production significantly exceeds the total volume in the ventricles and subarachnoid space.

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What is the approximate rate of production of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the adult human brain in 24 hours?

“Why do we instinctively do a certain thing after an injury to feel relief?”

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What is the significance of gate control system in pain transmission?

Focus on the linear acceleration of the utricle and saccule, which are unique to the otolith organs.

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A 60-year-old male patient is suspected to be suffering from impairment of the otolith organs based on a detailed neurological examination and a CT scan. Which of the following functions is most likely to be disturbed in this case?

Think about the brain as a highly sensitive organ that requires protection from external toxins while still needing essential nutrients to function. What kind of barrier would allow selective passage of substances to achieve this balance?

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Which of the following is correct for the function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB)?

Focus on endogenous opioids released by interneurons that play a central role in inhibiting pain signals.

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Which of the following substances is released by interneurons in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord to inhibit ascending pain signals?

This pathway carries information about pain and temperature from the opposite side of the body to the brain. Imagine losing the ability to feel a sharp object or the sensation of burning. What pathway is responsible for alerting your brain to such dangers?

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Damage to which of the following results in the loss of pain sensation?

Think of involuntary, rapid, and unpredictable movements associated with basal ganglia damage, especially in Huntington’s disease.

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Which of the following types of movements occur due to multiple small lesions in the putamen nucleus that lead to flicking movements in the hands, face, and other parts of the body?

Think of the pathway that suppresses motor activity by indirectly increasing inhibition on the thalamus.

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Which pathway of the basal ganglia is associated with the inhibition of unwanted movements?

“When you touch a hot object, the sensory receptors in your skin immediately generate an electrical change that may or may not trigger an action potential. What is this initial electrical response called?”

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The nerve endings at the end of the receptor have a receptor potential due to which of the following?

This part of the hypothalamus is responsible for cooling the body and activating rest-and-digest functions.

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A research student is given a task to find out the results of electrical stimulation of different parts of the hypothalamus of a rat. On stimulation of the anterior hypothalamic area and preoptic area, what response is likely to be seen?

Think about how cerebrospinal fluid is removed from the brain.

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Which of the following factors primarily determines the pressure of cerebrospinal fluid within the intracranial space?

Focus on a reflex response that becomes stronger after a period of suppression, as seen when inhibitory control is lifted.

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During a study, the response of a particular reflex is inhibited for a while and then released suddenly, resulting in a response that is stronger than normal. This is known as which of the following properties of a reflex?

This structure is part of the brainstem and plays a key role in arousal and consciousness.

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Which of the following structures is involved in sleep and awakening?

This structure is essential for maintaining consciousness and alertness and is located in the brainstem, where it influences the transitions between sleep and wakefulness.

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Which of the following structures is involved in sleep and awakening?

“Which brain structure controls emotions, hunger, and body temperature while linking the nervous and endocrine systems?”

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Which one of the following is the major part of the limbic system?

Think about the direction of signal transmission in the nervous system. Which type of fiber carries information from the periphery to the CNS?

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Which one of the fibers are used by sensory receptors to carry impulse from the periphery to the central nervous system?

Consider the supportive glial cells that help regulate the brain’s microenvironment and contribute to the selective permeability of the BBB.

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Which one of the following forms the blood-brain barrier?

These fibers regulate the tension in the muscle spindle to ensure it can detect stretch even when the muscle is contracted.

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Which one of the following innervates intrafusal muscle fibers?

“These fibers are responsible for muscle contraction. Do they connect to the sensory part of the muscle spindle, or do they directly cause muscle movement?”

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Which of the following is incorrect about alpha fibers?

“Which part of the reticular formation controls breathing rhythm and autonomic responses?”

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Reticular formation nuclei concerned with autonomic regulation of respiration pressure are present in?

“This reflex involves adjustments in vision that require conscious perception and higher-level processing beyond simple brainstem reflexes.”

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Which of the following visual reflexes involves the cerebral cortex?

Think of the autonomic system that promotes digestion, relaxation, and energy conservation

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During resting, the heart rate is slowed, pupils are constricted, peristalsis and glandular activity are increased, sphincters are opened, and the bladder wall is contracted. Which of the following system is activated in this state?

Think about the ion that enters through NMDA receptors and is required for synaptic strengthening

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Long-term potentiation is identified in hippocampal mossy fibers by an increase in which of the following ions in the postsynaptic area?

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) has a large reserve of ACh vesicles to ensure effective muscle activation.

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A single axon terminal has how many acetylcholine vesicles?

“Which neurotransmitter is involved in mood regulation and also plays a role in pain inhibition?”

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Which one of the following neurotransmitters decreases the pain perception in the brain?

Think about the distribution of inputs from multiple neurons acting at the same time to create a combined effect on the postsynaptic neuron.

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In an experimental lab, multiple stimuli from different neurons are applied to a post-synaptic neuron simultaneously to generate an action potential. Which one of the following phenomena of a synapse is displayed here?

Consider the interaction between climbing fibers and Purkinje cells in modifying motor output during motor learning.

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How does the cerebellum refine muscle contraction timing and precision during learning?

“Imagine trying to touch your nose with your eyes closed. Your brain still knows where your hand is. What type of receptor allows this?”

 

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Where does the cerebellum receive information concerning muscle movement from?

Think about the brain wave patterns seen during deep sleep and how the same waves may appear in abnormal conditions like brain damage in awake individuals.

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Which of the following brain waves are most likely to be present in the EEG of a healthy sleeping person and a brain-damaged awake person?

“Think about which hormones are produced by the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei. What would happen if the body suddenly stopped making one of these hormones? Consider its role in maintaining homeostasis and fluid balance.”

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Lesions of the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei would result in which of the following disorders?

Think about what type of sensations are carried by the dorsal column and how their loss might affect body coordination.

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Lesion of the dorsal column results in which of the following?

Focus on the receptor type located in the fingertips that detects subtle changes in texture or motion and adapts rapidly.

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Which of the following touch receptors is known for its exceptional sensitivity to movement and low-frequency vibration?

This nerve is the main parasympathetic controller of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract.

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Which cranial nerve damage will cause respiratory issues?

This inhibitory neurotransmitter reduces neurotransmitter release by blocking calcium channels on the presynaptic membrane.

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Which neurotransmitter acts on the presynaptic membrane as an inhibitor?

Think about receptors that sustain their response to constant light touch, providing detailed spatial information about texture and pressure.

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Which of the following are slowly adapting receptors responsible for detecting light touch, particularly in the fingertips and lips?

“Even when you’re asleep, your body continues to breathe without conscious effort. The control of this vital function comes from a structure deep in the brainstem. Which one is it?”

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Where is the respiratory center located?

This neurotransmitter is known for mood regulation and sleep initiation—low levels are linked to insomnia and depression.

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Which neurotransmitter is secreted by the Raphe nuclei that also plays a role in non-REM sleep?

The enzyme responsible for breaking down acetylcholine splits it into a fatty acid and a molecule that is used in the production of more acetylcholine.

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Tags: 2016

What does acetylcholinesterase break acetylcholine into?

During a “fight or flight” response, the body prioritizes blood flow to vital organs and muscles

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Sympathetic stimulation results in which of the following?

Deep tendon reflexes involve muscle stretch and contraction, usually tested with a reflex hammer. If a reflex involves a different sensory mechanism (like touch or irritation), it is likely not a DTR.

 

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Which of the following is not a deep tendon reflex?

Think of VMH as the body’s appetite brake—if damaged, the brakes fail, leading to uncontrolled eating and obesity.

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Tags: 2019

An obese woman suffers from a mid-hypothalamic lesion. Which of the following nuclei is involved?

“Which part of the brain acts as the body’s natural clock, synchronizing sleep-wake cycles with daylight?”

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The suprachiasmatic nucleus is responsible for which of the following functions?

Think about the terms “hyperalgesia” and “allodynia.” What do the prefixes “hyper-” and “allo-” suggest about the nature of these conditions?

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Hyperalgesia and allodynia signify which of the following statements?

“Which term describes how we perceive things like touch, temperature, and pain from the environment?”

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What is the sensitivity to the stimuli outside the body called?

“Why does muscle weakness improve with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors?”

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Myasthenia gravis is primarily a pathology of which structure?

“This neuron does not cause direct muscle contraction but instead fine-tunes sensory feedback by maintaining muscle spindle tension. It works alongside alpha motor neurons in regulating movement and reflexes.”

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Which of the following is a neuron that forms synaptic junctions with intrafusal skeletal muscle fibers?

This brain structure regulates autonomic nervous system functions, including heart rate, temperature, and endocrine activity.

 

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What is the function of the hypothalamus?

This hormone signals hunger when the stomach is empty, encouraging food intake and is known as the “hunger hormone.”

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Which of the following substances is responsible for the inhibition of the satiety center and activation of the hunger center?

This neurotransmitter is also used at the neuromuscular junction and activates nicotinic receptors in autonomic ganglia

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Which neurotransmitter is released by all preganglionic neurons of autonomic nervous system?

What happens when you are scared… or well.. just excited.. perhaps a bit too much.

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Sympathetic stimulation results in which of the following?

Focus on the neuron type located in dorsal root ganglia, specialized for transmitting sensory information from the periphery to the CNS.

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A Neurophysician wants to conduct research on the properties of sensory neurons. Which one of the following types of neuron is appropriate for the study?

“Which receptors are responsible for sensing touch, temperature, and pain from the environment?”

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Which receptors receive stimuli immediate from external surroundings?

“This system influences levels of awareness and responsiveness, playing a role in regulating different states of consciousness”

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What is the function of the reticular activating system?

lack the protective myelin sheath, allowing anesthetic agents to more easily block sodium channels and inhibit nerve conduction.

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Which of the following nerve fiber types is most sensitive to anesthetic agents?

“Which cranial nerve controls both tear production and salivation (except for the parotid gland)?”

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A patient comes to the neurology department with a complaint of dryness of the mouth and irritation in the eyes. It is diagnosed that there is a lesion in the lacrimal and salivary glands. Which of the nerves is most likely to get affected?

The reticular formation and RAS are responsible for keeping the brain alert and awake by stimulating the cerebral cortex.

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Which of the following is involved in waking up the cerebral cortex?

“This proprioceptive structure acts as a safety mechanism, ensuring that muscles do not exert excessive force that could cause damage. What kind of reflex would prevent overcontraction?”

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What is the function of the Golgi tendon organ?

Think about which nucleus is directly linked to light signals and helps to maintain the body’s internal clock that synchronizes with the day-night cycle.

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Which of the following hypothalamic nuclei regulates circadian rhythms?

Think of the mechanism where touch, such as rubbing an area after injury, can reduce the sensation of pain.

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According to the gate control theory of pain modulation, which of the following is caused by the stimulation of large-diameter Aβ fibers?

Think about the primary functions of the cerebellum in motor control and coordination. Which clinical condition would result from a disruption of these functions?

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Lesion in cerebellum causes which of the following clinical conditions?

How often is CSF completely replaced in a day?

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What is the rate of production of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

This part of the hypothalamus is known as the hunger center—stimulating it makes you feel hungry, thirsty, or aggressive, but never full or satisfied.

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Which of the following will not result with stimulation of periventricular and lateral nuclei of the hypothalamus?

Think about the specific role of Wernicke’s area in language processing. Which aspects of language are affected when this area is damaged, and which are typically preserved?

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Which one of the following signs and symptom occurs in Wernicke’s sensory area lesion?

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